Sounds
Sound plays a powerful role in shaping how people perceive information, process emotions, and make decisions, making it a crucial factor in the spread and impact of disinformation. Research shows that various auditory cues - such as speech tone, background music, and alarm-like sounds - can enhance credibility, trigger urgency, or manipulate emotions, thereby making people more susceptible to false or misleading information (Buller & Burgoon, 1986).
In this Chapter:
4.1. Emotional Priming and Persuasion Through Sound
The tone and cadence of speech can dramatically alter how we interpret a message. Studies on voice perception (O'Connor & Barclay, 2017) show that deep, steady voices are perceived as more trustworthy and authoritative, regardless of the content’s accuracy. Disinformation campaigns exploit this by using confident vocal delivery in podcasts and radio shows to make false claims seem credible. Similarly, fear-inducing sounds, such as high-pitched alarms, distorted voices, or suspenseful background music, can amplify fear and increase belief in conspiracies (Jolij & Meurs, 2011). For example, some pandemic misinformation videos employ “emergency broadcast-style” tones to trigger anxiety, making viewers more likely to accept false claims. On the other hand, soothing background sounds, such as calm piano music, have been found to increase perceived credibility, even in misleading content.
A targeted analysis found that TikTok users employ specific sounds (they identified specific audio tracks) to disseminate misleading content about COVID-19 (O’Connor/Institute for Strategic Dialogue, 2021). The analysis found that certain audio tracks were used to reinforce anti-vaccine narratives, with users aligning themselves with the sentiments expressed in these sounds. The report notes that such audio elements can add credibility to the anti-vaccination sentiments, especially when used by individuals appearing as healthcare workers.
A study by Arcos et al. (2025) reveals distinct emotional and audio characteristics that differentiate disinformation from trustworthy content on social media during the DANA flooding in Valencia (October 29, 2024). Disinformation audios on TikTok used tonal variations, emotional depth, and manipulative musical elements to evoke anger and disgust, enhancing engagement and influencing perceptions. In contrast, trustworthy audios featured brighter tones, stronger onset strength, and monotone narration that promotes clarity.
4.2. Sound as a Behavioural Trigger in Disinformation
Repetitive auditory cues can significantly enhance recall and believability, making it easier for misinformation to spread. Political campaigns and conspiracy theorists often use recurring sound motifs, like dramatic drum rolls before misinformation claims, to heighten the emotional weight of the message
In a study of auditory warnings (Burt et al., 1995), it was found through the use of physiological measures sensitive to attention and arousal that auditory warnings may be designed in ways that produce a sense of urgency that matches the urgency of the situation.
In another renowned study (Suied et al., 2008), researchers conclude that interonset interval (the time elapsed from the onset of one sound pulse to the onset of the next) can be used to modulate warning sound urgency, and that temporal irregularity can provoke an arousal effect in listeners, thus increasing the intensity of a carried emotion.
A striking example of this is seen in some QAnon videos, where repeated dramatic tones create an illusion of “revelation” moments, making false claims feel more significant. Alert-like tones are also used in disinformation, where fake “breaking news” intros exploit perceived urgency to encourage people to share news without fact-checking (Wang et al., 2019). Research shows that these urgency-inducing sound effects increase the likelihood of spreading misinformation. Some disinformation campaigns also use low-frequency sound waves to subtly manipulate mood and reduce critical thinking. Other authors (Arnal et al. 2015) suggest that subtle bass tones induce physiological arousal and tension, making audiences more receptive to biased narratives, which is frequently seen in political ads.
Researchers were interested in whether music can evoke a sense of power and produce power-related cognition and behaviour. They found that music pretested to be powerful implicitly activated the construct of power in listeners (Hsu et al., 2014).
Power-inducing music produced three known important downstream consequences of power: abstract thinking (thinking about generalised concepts, patterns and ideas that do not relate to a specific example), illusory control (the tendency to overestimate one’s ability to control events), and moving first (the desire and intent to act before others).
When the researchers held all features of music constant except for the level of bass (and they used different heavy and light bass parameters to show that any bass would have that effect), they found that music with more bass increased participants’ sense of power, suggesting that lower frequencies can enhance perceptions of dominance.
4.3. Sound and Cognitive Biases in Fake News Consumption
Sound can also reinforce cognitive biases and influence how we process fake news. For example, dramatic audio effects, such as “impending doom” music, are often used to amplify the perceived danger or importance of fabricated stories, making them feel more urgent and significant. Levine et al. (2020) demonstrated that exaggerated audio cues in anti-immigrant misinformation videos reinforced the availability heuristic, where people believe something is more common because it feels emotionally significant. Furthermore, echo chambers in disinformation often rely on repeated exposure to one-sided audio content, reinforcing familiarity bias. Pennycook et al. (2018) found that individuals who frequently hear misinformation through podcasts, with consistent sound cues, become more accepting of false narratives over time, even if they were initially sceptical.
Cognitive biases, however, are excluded from The Blueprint Model as they have different mechanics than those in the plane which our model examines. They will be covered separately as the authors continue their research and experimentation in this specific field.
4.4. Neurological Impact of Sound in Misinformation Processing
Sound influences how our brains process information, often bypassing rational evaluation and triggering emotional responses. The amygdala, responsible for processing fear-based auditory cues, becomes more active in response to alarmist sounds like high-pitched sirens, increasing emotional reactivity and reducing rational scrutiny. This explains why fear-inducing audio in health misinformation, such as anti-vaccine propaganda, can make individuals more resistant to fact-checking and more likely to accept false claims. Moreover, the release of dopamine in response to pleasurable music and engaging audio formats, such as suspenseful storytelling in conspiracy videos, stimulates the brain’s reward system, making listeners eager to seek out additional (mis)information (Ferreri et al. 2019; Blood & Zatorre 2001). Similarly, high-stress sounds, like war drums in political ads, trigger cortisol spikes, prompting the fight-or-flight response and making people more likely to accept extreme or sensational claims without deeper scrutiny.
4.5. The Neurobiology and Psychophysiology of Sounds
The noise-stress hypothesis suggests noise activates the autonomic and endocrine systems, increasing stress hormones like cortisol and (nor)epinephrine (Ising & Kruppa, 2004; Evans, Bullinger, & Hygge, 1998; Mashke et al., 2002).
Sound is processed subcortically, with the amygdala triggering protective reactions (fight/flight response) when sounds are perceived as potential threats. Even at low levels, sound can raise stress hormones, and prolonged exposure to noise can lead to chronic cortisol elevation. Noise that may be categorised as a danger signal (the information conveyed by the noise seems more relevant for this determination than the sound level) induces the release of stress hormones, even during sleep (Ising & Kruppa, 2004).
The auditory system remains active even during sleep, and noise-induced excitations are processed through the amygdala, which then stimulates the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, resulting in cortisol release.
Exposure to certain sounds, particularly those that are loud, sudden, or high-pitched, can indeed trigger physiological stress responses, including the release of cortisol, the body's primary stress hormone. This response is part of the body's natural fight-or-flight mechanism.
Exposure to loud, unexpected noises can activate the fight/flight response, characterised by the secretion of adrenaline and noradrenaline from the adrenal medulla. If the noise is perceived as an overwhelming threat, it can also lead to increased cortisol secretion from the adrenal cortex (Ising & Brown, 2014).
In a review of research on bodily responses to music, Hodges (2016) summarises the principal impact/response areas: heart rate, skin conductivity, blood pressure, biochemical (hormonal, immune), respiration, temperature, muscular tension, chills, blood volume, gastric motility, blood oxygen saturation, ankle jerk, pupillary reflex, zygomatic/smile muscle activation).
In a study by Belletiere et al. (2014) warning sounds (different frequencies) are shown to trigger active response (as opposed to passive listening with no reaction), in 61-85% of subjects.
In comparative terms, it is widely accepted that the mean reaction time to detect visual stimuli is approximately 180 to 200 milliseconds, whereas for sound it is around 140-160 milliseconds (Thompson et al., 1992). In some studies and specific conditions, the reaction time for sound stimuli was as fast as 100 milliseconds, and in special conditions can be as little as 60-70 milliseconds (Paing & Hibbs, 2007).
Specifically induced physiological state can influence an individual's emotional responses to stimuli. In an experiment, heartbeat sounds significantly affected participants' heartbeat, the emotional judgments of pictures, and their recall, with close sounds (headphones vs. loudspeakers) being more affective than distant ones (Tajadura-Jiménez, 2008).
It has been shown that music elicits intense emotional responses that activate brain regions thought to be involved in reward/motivation (dopamine release), emotion and arousal, including ventral striatum, midbrain, thalamus, orbitofrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex and the insula (Blood and Zatorre, 2001).
4.6. Sounds and Emotions
A selection of studies provides insights into the emotional impact of sounds.
Summaries combining both causal and correlational studies of emotional features in music (Gabrielsson & Lindstrom, 2010; Juslin & Laukka, 2003) have produced fairly consistent sets of features for particular emotions, and a similar pattern of findings applies to temporal fluctuations in the emotional responses as well (e.g. Coutinho & Cangelosi, 2009; Schubert, 2004). Some of these findings are presented in structured tables at the end of this section and we recommend them for practical and analytical purposes.
For instance, Anger (or high arousal, negative valence in the dimensional affect space) is characterised by a high sound level, fast tempo, high pitch variability, high-frequency energy content, and fast tone attacks. Happiness (high arousal, positive valence) is also marked by fast tempo, but typically has a medium sound level, high pitch level, fast tone attacks, major mode, and bright timbre. Sadness (low arousal, negative valence) has the opposite trends in musical parameters: slow tempo, dark timbre, low pitch level, slow attacks, and minor mode. Finally, Tenderness (low arousal, positive valence) is similar to Sadness but differs in respect to mode, favoring major key. (Eerola, 2012)
In another well-known study by Eldar et al (2007), subjects were presented with three types of stimuli:
(1) music clips, which were rich in emotion but lacked concrete real-world details; (2) film clips, which contained real-world details but were emotionally neutral; and (3) combined music and film clips.
The music clips conveyed negative, positive, or neutral emotions, while all film clips remained emotionally neutral. All film clips and neutral music clips were rated by the subjects as relatively non-emotional (non-arousing and neutral), whereas the negative and positive music clips were rated as highly arousing and clearly negative or positive. Most importantly, the combinations of music and film were rated similarly to the same music clips on their own, i.e. when neutral film and music clips appeared together, the neutral film acquired the emotional valence provided by the music.
Gomez and Danuser (2007) established that fast and loud music shares features with events of high energy and so suggests a high-energy emotion.
Music can markedly enhance the emotional experience evoked by affective pictures. In an experiment (Baumgartner et al., 2006) where images and music were chosen to evoke three basic emotions (happiness, sadness and fear), it was demonstrated that:
- Both psychometrical ratings and physiological involvement measurements (skin conductance, heart rate, respiration) were significantly increased in the combined (image and sound) and sound-only conditions compared to the picture conditions.
- The neural activation pattern for alpha brain waves (8-12Hz) suggests least activation for the sound condition, moderate activation for the picture condition, and strongest activation for the combined condition, indicating the strongest activation in the multimodal condition of a distributed emotion and arousal network comprising frontal, temporal, parietal and occipital neural structures.
Alpha-phase synchronisation across distant brain areas is known to facilitate communication and coordination between networks, reflecting active processing. Thus, enhanced alpha during multimodal (sound + picture) conditions likely represents top-down attentional control or integrative processes. In fact, alpha might help suppress interfering inputs to prioritise relevant multisensory emotional signals. Coincidentally, some recent research (Alamia et al., 2023) suggests that top-down propagating waves are inhibitory for attention.
When assessing how the composed musical structure influences the perceived emotional expression, it is essential to recognise that this perception is dependent on both factors within the composed structure and factors within the performance (Gabrielsson & Lindström, 2010). It is safe to assume that it is often difficult to distinguish between these factors. Still, for the purposes of The Blueprint Model, we are focused on examining the induced effects of the composed structure, assuming neutrality of performance.
Additionally, there is another distinction based on the idea that music may both represent emotions (that are perceived by listeners) and induce emotions (that are felt by listeners). Perceived and experienced emotion may not always coincide (Gabrielsson, 2002)
The two tables below are an excerpt, for preview purposes, of the full tables which contain structured information and data in table format that would otherwise be unreadable or impractical if presented on a webpage in full text. You can see the full tables at the bottom of this page.
- Excerpt from Table 4a Effects of separate musical factors on perceived emotional expression.
Adapted from Gabrielsson (2014) and Gabrielsson & Lindström (2010)
| Musical factor | Associated emotional expression |
|---|---|
| ... | .... |
| Melodic Direction (Pitch Contour)
Melodic direction is the path of a melody, its rise and fall, which can evoke feelings of ascent and triumph or descent and reflection |
> ascending melody may be associated with dignity, serenity, tension, happiness, fear, surprise, anger, and potency > descending melody may be associated with expressions such as exciting, graceful, vigorous, sadness, boredom, and pleasantness. |
| Melodic Motion
Melodic motion is the way a melody progresses, with steps that feel smooth and connected or leaps that feel bold and surprising |
> stepwise motion may suggest dullness > intervallic leaps suggest excitement > stepwise motion leading to melodic leaps may suggest peacefulness > greater occurrence of minor seconds, tritones, and intervals larger than the octave sense of instability and motion may convey a sense of instability and motion > greater occurrence of unisons and octaves is associated with vigour and power |
| Harmony
Harmony is the blending of multiple notes played simultaneously, creating chords that can be simple and pleasing or complex and unsettling |
> simple, consonant harmony may be associated with expressions as happy/gay, relaxed, graceful, serene, dreamy, dignified, serious, and majestic > complex and dissonant harmony is associated with expression of excitement, tension, vigor, anger, sadness, and unpleasantness* Consonant harmony features chords constructed from intervals that produce a smooth, blended sound. These intervals, often rooted in simple mathematical ratios between frequencies, result in a stable, resolved quality. Dissonant harmony employs chords built from intervals that generate a clashing, complex sound. It often serves to create contrast and add dramatic weight to musical passages. |
| ... | .... |
- Excerpt from Table 4b Summary of Determinants of Perceived Emotional Expression in Music.
Adapted and abridged from Gabrielsson and Juslin (2003)
| Emotion | Related variables in musical structure and number (n) of studies/publications where the affective relationship was proven |
|---|---|
| ... | .... |
| Happiness, Joy, Gaiety | Fast tempo (25), Moderate tempo variation (2), Major mode (8), Consonance (4), High loudness (11), Small loudness variation (3), High pitch (5), Large pitch variation/pitch range (3), Ascending melody, rising intonation (2), Rhythm: regular (2), Staccato articulation (8), Large articulation variation (3), Many harmonics/bright timbre (2), Sharp envelope (3), Moderate timing variation (2), Sharpened contrasts between long and short notes (2), Low formal complexity and average dynamism (1) |
| Anger | Fast tempo (13), Minor mode (1), Dissonance (1), High loudness (13), Little loudness variation (1), Pitch: high (1), Small pitch variation (1), Ascending pitch contour (1), Complex rhythm (1), Articulation: staccato (4), legato (2), Moderate articulation variation (2), Many harmonics/sharp timbre (5), Sharp envelope (3) Small timing variation (1), Sharpened contrasts between long and short notes (1), Large vibrato extent (2), High complexity combined with high dynamism (1) |
| Fear | Tempo: fast (5), slow (2), Large tempo variation (3), Dissonance (1), Loudness: soft (7), moderate (1), Large loudness variation (3), Rapid loudness changes (1) Pitch: high level, ascending contour, small variation (1), Large pitch contrasts (1) Staccato articulation (4), Large articulation variation (2), Harmonics: many: (1) , few: (2), Large timing variation (3), Envelope: round: (2) , sharp: (1), Vibrato: irregular (2), fast (1) |
| ... | .... |
Find the full content of both tables below or download here:
4.7. Examples
Based on the screened and curated research above, we propose a short list of examples, many rooted in actual and traceable events, that demonstrate the specific use of sound and music designed to influence and trigger an emotional response (and, consequently, action). These examples might be used by analysts, to suggest a level of deconstruction that should be used for a relatively thorough analytical take on an individual item, or by educators, to demonstrate the use of this particular cognitive trigger and its basic vector of impact in training interventions on media and information literacy.
4.7.1. Bayraktar Song Remixes on TikTok
Sound used: Melody, timbre, tempo, and lyrical repetition.
The Ukrainian patriotic song "Bayraktar", which pays homage to the Turkish TB2 drone used in the Russo-Ukrainian war, became widely viral on TikTok through multiple remixes across musical genres: from drum and bass to heavy metal. Its catchy melody, strong rhythm, and repetitive lyrics amplify nationalist sentiment, allowing the sound to transcend its original context and enable anonymous, scalable propaganda dissemination.
Cambridge University Press – Popular Music Journal | SAGE Journals – Sound of Disinformation on TikTok
4.7.2. Body Bags Video: Misleading Audio Overlay
Sound used: Authentic news audio, sombre background music, crowd noises.
A viral video showing rows of body bags purportedly from war casualties was actually footage from unrelated protests in Austria. The deceptive narrative was reinforced by overlaying sombre music and real-sounding news audio about Ukrainian casualties, compelling viewers emotionally and misleading them about the video's authenticity. The audio’s emotional tone and seeming authenticity enhanced the disinformation’s credibility.
Forbes Fact-check | Full Fact Verification
4.7.3. Sirens and Sound Effects in Fake “Eyewitness” Clips
Sound used: Emergency sirens, alarm tones, suspenseful minor-key music.
TikTok videos purportedly showing war scenes frequently pair vague or unrelated footage with sirens and intense music to evoke fear and urgency in viewers. These auditory cues activate alarm responses and heighten emotional engagement, making the fabricated events seem more credible and immediate. The mismatch is often unnoticed, leveraging sound’s ability to provoke a visceral reaction.
TikTok Trend Examples and Analysis
4.7.4. Soldier Moonwalk Viral Video as Satirical Manipulation
Sound used: Michael Jackson’s “Smooth Criminal,” rhythmic pop music.
A video of a Ukrainian soldier performing the moonwalk dance in combat gear went viral worldwide. Originally a morale-boosting or satirical clip, the recognisable pop song’s rhythm helped the video spread rapidly. Its context sometimes gets misrepresented, either as evidence of unprofessional military conduct or propaganda, showing how music can shift perceptions of visual content.
SAGE Journals – Sound of Disinformation on TikTok
4.7.5. Algorithmic Amplification of Emotional Content for Propaganda
Sound used: Positive, uplifting instrumental music versus neutral or muted audio.
Social media algorithms preferentially amplify videos with emotionally engaging soundtracks, especially in pro-government or propaganda content. The use of uplifting background music in certain videos contrasts with the muted or less emotive audio of critical or oppositional content, subtly directing viewer emotions and attitudes towards favouring particular political narratives without overt persuasion.
Frontiers in Social Psychology
4.7.6. Out-of-Context COVID-19 Hospital Audio
Sound used: Hospital ambient sounds (monitor beeps, staff calls), mournful piano music.
Footage unrelated to COVID-19 was paired with genuine hospital sounds and sombre music to fabricate intense health crisis scenarios. The authentic hospital auditory environment lends false credibility to the visuals, manipulating viewers into believing there is an ongoing emergency in the depicted location.
News Literacy Project
4.7.7. Weaponised Use of Dissonant Sound in Hate Speech Videos
Sound used: Dissonant harmony, harsh and abrasive timbres, irregular rhythms.
Extremist and hate speech content online uses unsettling and discordant sounds -- sharp timbres combined with unpredictable rhythms -- to psychologically unsettle viewers and heighten anxiety or aggression. This auditory strategy intensifies the message’s emotional impact and can deepen feelings of fear or hostility toward targeted groups.
Juslin & Västfjäll (2008), Emotional Responses to Music
4.7.8. Misused Historical Music in “Fake News” Montages
Sound used: Funeral marches, solemn national anthems layered on unrelated imagery.
Archival music tied to solemn historical events is deliberately mismatched with false or manipulated current event footage to manipulate emotions and forge misleading associations. This misuse distorts the original emotional meaning of the music to support fabricated narratives.
Digital Media & Misinformation Review
4.7.9. TikTok Trend: Staged Crisis with Dissonant Soundscapes
Sound used: Complex electronic tones, abrupt volume shifts, staccato articulation.
Fake crises or emergency videos employ intentionally dissonant, erratic sound structures to induce tension and anxiety. Rapid changes in loudness and sharp sound articulation elevate viewers’ emotional arousal and make the staged event appear urgent and chaotic.
Music and Emotion Research Overview
4.7.10. Manipulated Rhythmic Patterns in Short Clips for Attention-Grabbing
Sound used: Irregular complex rhythms, sudden crescendos timed to video edits.
Short-form disinformation clips use sudden dynamic changes and unpredictable rhythmic structures to maximise viewer attention and retention. This rhythmic manipulation exploits the brain’s responsiveness to unexpected auditory patterns, increasing the clip’s persuasive power and memorability.
Juslin & Sloboda, Handbook of Music and Emotion (2010)